Modulation is the approach by which a carrier wave has the ability to convey the message or digital signal. There are three essential methods to this: amplitude, frequency and phase shift keying. More bits per symbol or

The COST 231 model [1-2] is a semi-empirical path loss model, resulting from the combination of Walfisch-Bertoni [3] and Ikegami [4] models. It is recommended for macro-cells in urban and suburban scenarios, showing very

In telecommunication, free-space path loss (FSPL) is the loss in signal strength of an electromagnetic wave that would result from a line-of-sight path through free space (usually air), with no obstacles nearby to cause

In telecommunication, free-space path loss (FSPL) is the loss in signal strength of an electromagnetic wave that would result from a line-of-sight path through free space (usually air), with no obstacles nearby to cause

Large-scale variations caused by shadowing of obstacles are shown to follow a log-normal distribution [17][18][19], which means that when measured in dB they follow a Gaussian distribution. Consequently shadowing effects